by Manly P.
Hall
In the Novum Organum (the new
instrumentality for the acquisition of knowledge) Francis
Bacon classified the intellectual fallacies of his time
under four headings which he called idols. He
distinguished them as idols of the Tribe, idols of the
Cave, idols of the Marketplace and idols of the
Theater.
An idol is an image, in this case held
in the mind, which receives veneration but is without
substance in itself. Bacon did not regard idols as
symbols, but rather as fixations. In this respect he
anticipated modern psychology.
Idols of the Tribe
are deceptive beliefs inherent
in the mind of man, and therefore belonging to the whole
of the human race. They are abstractions in error arising
from common tendencies to exaggeration, distortion, and
disproportion. Thus men gazing at the stars perceive the
order of the world, but are not content merely to
contemplate or record that which is seen. They extend
their opinions, investing the starry heavens with
innumerable imaginary qualities. In a short time these
imaginings gain dignity and are mingled with the facts
until the compounds become inseparable. This may explain
Bacon's epitaph which is said to be a summary of his
whole method. It reads, "Let all compounds be dissolved."
Idols of the
Cave are those which arise
within the mind of the individual. This mind is
symbolically a cavern. The thoughts of the individual
roam about in this dark cave and are variously modified
by temperament, education, habit, environment, and
accident. Thus an individual who dedicates his mind to
some particular branch of learning becomes possessed by
his own peculiar interest, and interprets all other
learning according to the colors of his own devotion. The
chemist sees chemistry in all things, and the courtier
ever present at the rituals of the court unduly
emphasizes the significance of kings and
princes.
(The title page of Bacon's New
Atlantis (London 1626) is ornamented with a curious
design or printer's device. The winged figure of Father
Time is shown lifting a female figure from a dark cave.
This represents truth resurrected from the cavern of the
intellect.)
Idols of the
Marketplace are errors arising
from the false significance bestowed upon words, and in
this classification Bacon anticipated the modern science
of semantics. According to him it is the popular belief
that men form their thoughts into words in order to
communicate their opinions to others, but often words
arise as substitutes for thoughts and men think they have
won an argument because they have out talked their
opponents. The constant impact of words variously used
without attention to their true meaning only in turn
condition the understanding and breed fallacies. Words
often betray their own purpose, obscuring the very
thoughts they are designed to express.
Idols of the Theater
are those which are due to
sophistry and false learning. These idols are built up in
the field of theology, philosophy, and science, and
because they are defended by learned groups are accepted
without question by the masses. When false philosophies
have been cultivated and have attained a wide sphere of
dominion in the world of the intellect they are no longer
questioned. False superstructures are raised on false
foundations, and in the end systems barren of merit
parade their grandeur on the stage of the
world.
A careful reading of the Novum Organum
will show. Bacon used the theater with its curtain and
its properties as a symbol of the world stage. It might
even be profitable to examine the Shakespearean plays
with this viewpoint in mind.
*************
After
summarizing the faults which distinguish the learning of
his time, Bacon offered his solution. To him true
knowledge was the knowledge of causes. He defined physics
as the science of variable causes, and metaphysics as the
science of fixed causes. By this definition alone his
position in the Platonic descent is clearly revealed. Had
he chosen Aristotle as his mentor the definition would
have been reversed.
It was Bacon's intention to gather
into one monumental work his program for the renewal of
the sciences. This he called Instauratio Magna (the
encyclopedia of all knowledge), but unfortunately the
project was never completed. He left enough, however, so
that other men could perfect the work.
The philosophy of Francis Bacon
reflects not only the genius of his own mind but the
experiences which result from full and distinguished
living. The very diversity of his achievements
contributed to the unity of his thinking. He realized the
importance of a balanced viewpoint, and he built his
patterns by combining the idealism of Plato with the
practical method of Aristotle. From Plato he derived a
breadth of vision, and from Aristotle a depth of
penetration. Like Socrates, he was an exponent of
utility, and like Diogenes a sworn enemy of sophistry.
Knowledge was not to be acquired merely for its own sake,
which is learning, but for its use, which is
intelligence. The principal end of philosophy is to
improve the state of man; the merit of all learning is to
be determined by its measure of usefulness.
Bacon believed that the first step was
to make a comprehensive survey of that which is known, as
distinguished from that which is believed. This attitude
he seems to have borrowed from Paracelsus and shared with
Descartes. Knowledge may be gathered from the past
through tradition. It may be accumulated and augmented by
observation, but it must be proved and established by
experimentation. No theory is important until it has been
proved by method. Thus Bacon set up the machinery of
control which has since become almost the fetish of
science.
Upon the solid foundation of the
known, trained minds can build toward universal knowing,
which is the end of the work. Knowledge alone can
preserve and perfect human life. In spite of his
scientific approach, Bacon in no way discounted the
spiritual content in the world. Knowledge might arise
from inspiration and the internal illumination of the
consciousness, but this illumination is not knowledge
until, through experimentation, the truth is physically
established.
